UDP is a connectionless protocol and, as such, it can be easily spoofed. ), 145. (Choose two.). Unicast RPF operates in two modes: strict and loose. Caution:Application layer protocol inspection will decrease firewall performance. If a CSRF attack is detected, a user is notified by warning messages. Strict mode Unicast RPF is enabled on Cisco IOS devices using the interface configuration commandip verify unicast source reachable-via rx; the previous format of this command wasip verify unicast reverse-path. Frames from PC1 will be forwarded to its destination, but a log entry will not be created. Script kiddies create hacking scripts to cause damage or disruption. 23. The only traffic denied is echo-replies sourced from the 192.168.10.0/24 network. (Choose two.). 110. Explanation: The task to ensure that only authorized personnel can open a file is data confidentiality, which can be implemented with encryption. The community rule set focuses on reactive response to security threats versus proactive research work. RSA is an algorithm used for authentication. There is also a 30-day delayed access to updated signatures meaning that newest rule will be a minimum of 30 days old. 46. 45. The hostname to IP address mapping for devices in the requested domain name space will rapidly change (usually anywhere from several seconds to a few minutes). Match the type of ASA ACLs to the description. R1(config)# crypto isakmp key 5tayout! What tool is available through the Cisco IOS CLI to initiate security audits and to make recommended configuration changes with or without administrator input? DNS implementations use the transaction ID along with the source port value to synchronize the responses to previously sent query messages. ! Depending on the perspective one possesses, state-sponsored hackers are either white hat or black hat operators. The firewall will automatically drop all HTTP, HTTPS, and FTP traffic. that operators can use as a guide for hardening their DNS servers. Explanation: The webtype ACLs are used in a configuration that supports filtering for clientless SSL VPN users. Production traffic shares the network with management traffic. The two ACEs of permit 192.168.10.0 0.0.0.63 and permit 192.168.10.64 0.0.0.63 allow the same address range through the router. Both the ASA CLI and the router CLI use the # symbol to indicate the EXEC mode. 132. PolicyDefines business intent including creation of virtual IP source guard is a Layer 2 security feature that builds upon Unicast RPF and DHCP snooping to filter spoofed traffic on individual switch ports. Place extended ACLs close to the destination IP address of the traffic. (Choose two.). For more information, consult this support article. 82. Which statement is a feature of HMAC? Explanation: There are various network security tools available for network security testing and evaluation. (Choose two. A recursive resolver recursively walks through the DNS architecture and locates the authoritative DNS server for the information in the DNS query (question asked), then distributes an answer or error for that information using a DNS query response message to the resolver who asked the question. (Choose three.). The official list of unallocated Internet addresses is maintained by, . The IPv6 access list LIMITED_ACCESS is applied on the S0/0/0 interface of R1 in the inbound direction. What is a characteristic of a role-based CLI view of router configuration? A network technician has been asked to design a virtual private network between two branch routers. Firewall syslog message410002will be generated when the firewall detects a high rate of DNS responses with a mismatched DNS transaction ID. Thanks so much, how many question in this exam? Additional information about application layer protocol inspection is available inConfiguring Application Layer Protocol Inspection. RADIUS provides encryption of the complete packet during transfer. It is likely, given this example that the IP address 192.168.3.6 was attempting to return falsified RR information and poison the DNS cache of the server at IP address 192.168.150.70. What service provides this type of guarantee? During Phase 1 the two sides negotiate IKE policy sets, authenticate each other, and set up a secure channel. What technology has a function of using trusted third-party protocols to issue credentials that are accepted as an authoritative identity? 5. TCP-WWW 77625 0.0 14 570 0.2 10.1 38.5 What is the main factor that ensures the security of encryption of modern algorithms? 79. (Choose two. http://www.caida.org/tools/utilities/dnsstat/. Which type of firewall is supported by most routers and is the easiest to implement? Attackers analyze the transaction ID values generated by the DNS implementation to create an algorithm that can be used to predict the next DNS transaction ID used for a query message. Administrators can configure Cisco IOS NetFlow on Cisco IOS routers and switches to aid in the identification of traffic flows that may be attempts to exploit these DNS implementation flaws. (Choose three.). ), 46What are the three components of an STP bridge ID? (Choose three. 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Nortel-MsCarrier-MscPassport-VoiceNetworkingMIB, Nortel-MsCarrier-MscPassport-WanDteCommonMIB, Nortel-MsCarrier-MscPassport-X25TraceRcvrMIB, Rogue-Engineering-Inc-Sentinel-Remote-IO-with-SNMP, SERENGETI-PLATFORM-SUNMANAGEMENTCENTER-MIB, SYMBIOSSDMSMASSSTORAGESYSTEMMIFDEFINITIO-MIB, TRAPEZE-NETWORKS-REGISTRATION-CHASSIS-MIB, TRAPEZE-NETWORKS-REGISTRATION-DEVICES-MIB, ZYXEL-BRIDGE-CONTROL-PROTOCOL-TRANSPARENCY-MIB. 64. A single superview can be shared among multiple CLI views. Refer to the exhibit. policy-map type inspect dns preset_dns_map DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC)adds security functions to the DNS protocol that can be used to prevent some of the attacks discussed in this document such as DNS cache poisoning. Explanation: There are several benefits of a ZPF: It is not dependent on ACLs. The router security posture is to block unless explicitly allowed. Policies are easy to read and troubleshoot with C3PL. One policy affects any given traffic, instead of needing multiple ACLs and inspection actions. UDP Flood Attacks. Explanation: Confidentiality ensures that data is accessed only by authorized individuals. The ASA, PIX, and FWSM firewall products, Cisco Intrusion Prevention System (IPS) and Cisco IOS NetFlow feature, provide capabilities to aid in identification and mitigation for DNS related attacks. These are likely to use large DNS packets to increase their efficiency; however large packets are not a requirement. This field can be used maliciously by setting the value for an RR to a short or long TTL value.. By using a short TTL value, malicious users can leverage DNS to distribute information about a large number of devices hosting malicious code or being used for malicious activities to DNS resolvers. 96. A network device using Unicast RPF evaluates the source of each IP packet against its local routing table in order to determine source address validity. What is the next step? OSPF authentication does not provide faster network convergence, more efficient routing, or encryption of data traffic. The default action of shutdown is recommended because the restrict option might fail if an attack is underway. Buy an ASA. ), 69. AES and 3DES are two encryption algorithms. If AAA is already enabled, which three CLI steps are required to configure a router with a specific view? 78. 92. Which two technologies provide enterprise-managed VPN solutions? 19. 59. Consists of the traffic generated by network devices to operate the network. web filtering; cloud access security; RADIUS is an open-standard AAA protocol using UDP port 1645 or 1812 for authentication and UDP port 1646 or 1813 for accounting. This feature is enabled by default and is available on Cisco ASA, Cisco PIX and Cisco FWSM Firewalls. Remove the inbound association of the ACL on the interface and reapply it outbound. There is a mismatch between the transform sets. Once the recursive DNS resolver has obtained this information, it will provide that information to the original DNS resolver using a DNS response message and the RR will be non-authoritative (since the recursive DNS resolver is not authoritative for the requested information). This feature is available beginning with software release 7.2(1) for Cisco ASA and Cisco PIX Firewalls. The date and time displayed at the beginning of the message indicates that service timestamps have been configured on the router. 4. Traffic that is originating from the public network is usually permitted with little or no restriction when traveling to the DMZ network. Which protocol or measure should be used to mitigate the vulnerability of using FTP to transfer documents between a teleworker and the company file server? What two ICMPv6 message types must be permitted through IPv6 access control lists to allow resolution of Layer 3 addresses to Layer 2 MAC addresses? Explanation: A wildcard mask uses 0s to indicate that bits must match. Theid-randomizationparameters submode command forpolicy-map type inspect dnscan be used to randomize the DNS transaction ID for a DNS query. *0035will display the related NetFlow records as shown here: Tables 3 and 4 list tools and resources that provide more information on DNS. What is the best way to prevent a VLAN hopping attack? Frames from PC1 will be forwarded since the switchport port-security violation command is missing. Chapter Title. What are two drawbacks to using HIPS? ! Place standard ACLs close to the destination IP address of the traffic. Explanation: In a brute-force attack, an attacker tries every possible key with the decryption algorithm knowing that eventually one of them will work. If the DNS server is authoritative, not configured as a recursive resolver, and it receives a DNS query message asking about information which the server is not authoritative, it will cause the server to issue a DNS response message containing RRs in the 'Authority Section' and the address mapping for the FQDN from that section may be present in the 'Additional Section'. A recently created ACL is not working as expected. (Choose two. What is a characteristic of a DMZ zone? hostname R2. Explanation: Using an intrusion prevention system (IPS) and firewall can limit the information that can be discovered with a port scanner. Refer to the exhibit. Deleting a superview does not delete the associated CLI views. Which Cisco solution helps prevent ARP spoofing and ARP poisoning attacks? UDP-other 923777 0.2 8 382 1.7 8.9 22.8 ", which is the top most level of the DNS hierarchy. This translation process is accomplished by a DNS resolver (this could be a client application such as a web browser or an e-mail client, or a DNS application such as BIND) sending a DNS query to a DNS server requesting the information defined in a RR. 113. Traffic from the less secure interfaces is blocked from accessing more secure interfaces. ), What are two data protection functions provided by MDM? http://dns.measurement-factory.com/tools/dnsdump/. Traffic that is originating from the public network is usually blocked when traveling to the DMZ network. Gi0/0 192.0.2.1 Null 192.168.60.163 11 072A 0035 87 A network administrator is configuring DAI on a switch. How does a firewall handle traffic when it is originating from the private network and traveling to the DMZ network? (Choose three.). Which two technologies provide enterprise-managed VPN solutions? Each building block performs a specific securty function via specific protocols. A tool that builds statistics based on DNS traffic seen on the network. A company has several sales offices distributed within a city. This informs the DNS resolver where to send queries in order to obtain authoritative information for the question in the DNS query. ! 512 544 576 1024 1536 2048 2560 3072 3584 4096 4608 Check answers here:Modules 1 4: Securing Networks Group Exam Answers Full, Network Security (Version1.0) Modules 1 4: Securing Networks Group Test Online. A user is curious about how someone might know a computer has been infected with malware. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1391 MIB starting with A, to top A10-AX-MIB A10-AX-NOTIFICATIONS A10-COMMON-MIB Therefore, the uplink interface that connects to a router should be a trusted port for forwarding ARP requests. What are two security features commonly found in a WAN design? The IOS do command is not required or recognized. response message packets due to an incorrect DNS transaction ID or a DNS response message with the correct transaction ID has already been received. Threat defense includes a firewall and intrusion prevention system (IPS). These are likely to use large DNS packets to increase their efficiency; however large packets are not a requirement. Add an association of the ACL outbound on the same interface. Filtering unwanted traffic before it enters low-bandwidth links preserves bandwidth and supports network functionality. These security levels allow traffic from more secure interfaces, such as security level 100, to access less secure interfaces, such as level 0. The code has not been modified since it left the software publisher. (Choose two. (Choose two.). Commands cannot be added directly to a superview but rather must be added to a CLI view and the CLI view added to the superview. The code was encrypted with both a private and public key. (Choose two.). inspecting traffic between zones for traffic control, tracking the state of connections between zones. Two popular algorithms used to ensure that data is not intercepted and modified (data integrity and authenticity) are MD5 and SHA. It includes coverage of advance exploits by using the research work of the Cisco Talos security experts. Which two characteristics apply to role-based CLI access superviews? Decrease the wireless antenna gain level. Explanation: Both TACACS+ and RADIUS support password encryption (TACACS+ encrypts all communication) and use Layer 4 protocol (TACACS+ uses TCP and RADIUS uses UDP). Cisco reserves the right to change or update this document without notice at any time. The interface on Router03 that connects to the time sever has the IPv4 address 209.165.200.225. !-- Enable id-randomization to generate unpredictable !-- DNS transaction IDs in DNS messages and protect !-- DNS servers and resolvers with poor randomization !-- of DNS transaction IDs. Frames from PC1 will be dropped, and there will be no log of the violation. Use the aaa local authentication attempts max-fail global configuration mode command with a higher number of acceptable failures. Some DNS implementations use a weak randomization algorithm to generate DNS transaction IDs for DNS query messages. The following subsections will provide an overview of these features and the capabilities they can provide. Malicious users can analyze the source port values generated by the DNS implementation to create an algorithm that can be used to predict the next UDP source port value used for a query message. Cisco ASA and Cisco FTD Malformed OSPF Packets Processing Denial of Service Vulnerability ASA 9.8.2 Missing HTTP Secure Header X-XSS-Protection. What is the next step? Explanation: After a user is successfully authenticated (logged into the server), the authorization is the process of determining what network resources the user can access and what operations (such as read or edit) the user can perform. In contrast, asymmetric encryption algorithms use a pair of keys, one for encryption and another for decryption. R1(config-if)# ppp pap sent-username R1 password 5tayout!R2(config-if)# ppp pap sent-username R2 password 5tayout! DNS is composed of a hierarchical domain name space that contains a tree-like data structure of linked domain names (nodes). Authentication, encryption, and passwords provide no protection from loss of information from port scanning. Which two statements describe the effect of the access control list wildcard mask 0.0.0.15? What type of network security test can detect and report changes made to network systems? The DNS transaction ID is a 16-bit field in the Header section of a DNS message. 73. Explanation: Snort IPS mode can perform all the IDS actions plus the following: Drop Block and log the packet. Reject Block the packet, log it, and then send a TCP reset if the protocol is TCP or an ICMP port unreachable message if the protocol is UDP. Sdrop Block the packet but do not log it. HIPS installations are vulnerable to fragmentation attacks or variable TTL attacks. Open a Command Prompt using the following procedure: Authoritative DNS servers should be used only for responding to queries for domain name space for which the server is administrative. A company is concerned with leaked and stolen corporate data on hard copies. CSCvs50459. ), Match each SNMP operation to the corresponding description. 20. 97. -------- Flows /Sec /Flow /Pkt /Sec /Flow /Flow A company implements a security policy that ensures that a file sent from the headquarters office to the branch office can only be opened with a predetermined code. Theshow asp drop framecommand can identify the number of DNS packets that the DNS guard function (with the counter nameinspect-dns-id-not-matched) has dropped because the transaction ID in the DNS response message does not match any transaction IDs for DNS queries that have passed across the firewall earlier on the same connection. Set up an authentication server to handle incoming connection requests. Which statement describes a difference between the Cisco ASA IOS CLI feature and the router IOS CLI feature? DNS uses both the source port value and transaction ID for tracking queries and the responses to queries. Note: This is the default !-- configuration and value based on RFC 1035. )if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'itexamanswers_net-medrectangle-3','ezslot_9',167,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-itexamanswers_net-medrectangle-3-0'); 2. ! ), * remote access VPNLayer 3 MPLS VPN* site-to-site VPNLayer 2 MPLS VPNFrame Relay, the date and time that the switch was brought online* the MAC address of the switchthe IP address of the management VLANthe hostname of the switch* the bridge priority value* the extended system ID, Which portion of the Snort IPS rule header identifies the destination port? A packet filtering firewall will prevent spoofing by determining whether packets belong to an existing connection while a stateful firewall follows pre-configured rule sets. The MD5 message digest algorithm is still widely in use. Several configuration examples are available in the Prevent DNS Open Resolver Configurations above to prevent or restrict your server from responding to recursive DNS queries. AES is an encryption protocol and provides data confidentiality. (Choose two. The following example shows how to identify the TLD for a domain name: comis the TLD forwww.cisco.comas it is the label furthest to the right. Authentication will help verify the identity of the individuals. What are two hashing algorithms used with IPsec AH to guarantee authenticity? This function is enabled by default with a limit of 512 bytes. Both IDS and IPS can use signature-based technology to detect malicious packets. A client connects to a Web server. authenticator-The interface acts only as an authenticator and does not respond to any messages meant for a supplicant. Buy an IPS. 41. Additional information about this syslog message is available inCisco Security Appliance System Log Message - 106007. A DNS open resolver is a DNS server that allows DNS clients that are not part of its administrative domain to use that server for performing recursive name resolution. Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Recent Comments. Which two protocols generate connection information within a state table and are supported for stateful filtering? Data center visibility is designed to simplify operations and compliance reporting by providing consistent security policy enforcement. Configuration of DNS application inspection capabilities will be detailed later in the feature configuration section of this document. Note:Recursion is enabled by default for Version 9.5 of the BIND software and prior. 24. IPINIP 12 0.0 2 20 0.0 1.1 60.8 Gi0/0 10.89.16.197 Gi0/1 192.168.150.60 06 0538 0016 45 TCP-FTPD 262 0.0 2362 493 0.1 15.1 21.0 The first 28 bits of a supplied IP address will be matched. What service provides this type of guarantee? WANs typically connect over a public internet connection. DNS can use either the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and historically uses a destination port of 53. TACACS provides separate authorization and accounting services. When a RADIUS client is authenticated, it is also authorized. Which Cisco solution helps prevent ARP spoofing and ARP poisoning attacks? To determine whether the DNS guard function is enabled globally, look for the following string in the firewall configuration for software releases 7.0(5) and later for Cisco ASA 5500 Series and Cisco PIX 500 Series appliances: If the DNS guard function has been disabled globally, it can be re-enabled using the following commands for software releases 7.0(5) and later for Cisco ASA 5500 Series and Cisco PIX 500 Series appliances: In software releases 7.2(1) and later for the Cisco ASA 5500 Series and Cisco PIX 500 Series appliances, administrators can enable DNS guard functionality through DNS application inspection and the Modular Policy Framework (MPF). More information is available in theSecuring the DNS Server serviceorSecurity Information for DNSdocumentation. Which component of this HTTP connection is not examined by a stateful firewall? To exploit this flaw in the DNS resolver implementation so it will store the falsified information, an attacker must be able to correctly predict the DNS transaction identifier (TXID) and the UDP source port for the DNS query (request) message. Configure Snort specifics. Step 6. 52. The dhcpd address [ start-of-pool ]-[ end-of-pool ] inside command was issued to enable the DHCP client. Active flows timeout in 2 minutes Explanation: The access list LIMITED_ACCESS will block ICMPv6 packets from the ISP. What provides both secure segmentation and threat defense in a Secure Data Center solution? ZPF allows interfaces to be placed into zones for IP inspection. 39. Area string router-LSA of length number bytes plus update overhead bytes is too large to flood. (Choose two.). parameters Because the functions of these resolvers are used for different purposes, the resolvers should be segregated. Privilege levels must be set to permit access control to specific device interfaces, ports, or slots. http://www.isc.org and is included with many operating systems. Enable SSH on the physical interfaces where the incoming connection requests will be received. We will update answers for you in the shortest time. Note:The source addresses of the DNS servers used in this attack scenario are typically DNS open resolvers. A powerful command line utility for debugging and troubleshooting DNS. 80. For this low-price tag, the Mikrotik hEX RB750Gr3 packs some powerful features that you will find only in high-end devices.. The DNS messages sent to open resolvers set the recursion desired (RD) flag in the DNS header. (Choose two. Which zone-based policy firewall zone is system-defined and applies to traffic destined for the router or originating from the router? HMACs use an additional secret key as input to the hash function, adding authentication to data integrity assurance. Which type of packet is unable to be filtered by an outbound ACL? As shown in the following example, the counterinspect-dns-id-not-matchedis represented in the command output as DNS Inspect id not matched: In the preceding example, the DNS guard function hasdropped 182 DNSresponse message packets due to an incorrect DNS transaction ID or a DNS response message with the correct transaction ID has already been received. Which network monitoring technology uses VLANs to monitor traffic on remote switches? Explanation: To address the interoperability of different PKI vendors, IETF published the Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate Policy and Certification Practices Framework (RFC 2527). Gi0/0 192.0.2.6 Gi0/1 192.168.60.27 11 0B7B 0035 2, Maliciously Abusing Implementation Flaws in DNS, Detecting and Preventing DNS Attacks using Cisco Products and Features, DNS Server Secure Cache Against Pollution, Know Your Enemy: Fast-Flux Service Networks, Understanding Unicast Reverse Path Forwarding, Configuring DHCP Features and IP Source Guard. Themessage-lengthparameters submode command for policy-map type inspect dnscan be used to ensure that message sizes to not exceed a specified size thus reducing the efficiency of these attacks. DNS application inspection utilizes the Modular Policy Framework (MPF) for configuration. The RR contains a 32-bit Time To Live (TTL) field used to inform the resolver how long the RR may be cached until the resolver needs to send a DNS query asking for the information again. Administrators should consider these as guidelines and evaluate these events in the context of their network to determine if these events represent malicious activities. Use VLAN 1 as the native VLAN on trunk ports. interface FastEthernet 0/10 150. (Not all options are used.). Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Operators can use the 'allow-recursion-on' configuration option to select which addresses on the DNS server will accept recursive DNS queries. Configure Virtual Port Group interfaces. Step 4. The dhcpd auto-config outside command was issued to enable the DHCP server. Queries from known sources (clients inside your administrative domain) may be allowed for information we do not know (for example, for domain name space outside our administrative domain). PKI certificates are public information and are used to provide authenticity, confidentiality, integrity, and nonrepudiation services that can scale to large requirements. A network administrator is configuring a VPN between routers R1 and R2. Explanation: Many companies now support employees and visitors attaching and using wireless devices that connect to and use the corporate wireless network. (Choose three. What AAA function is at work if this command is rejected? A network analyst is configuring a site-to-site IPsec VPN. 85. This traffic is permitted with little or no restriction. Explanation: Confidential data should be shredded when no longer required. An administrator discovers that a user is accessing a newly established website that may be detrimental to company security. GRE 4952 0.0 47 52 0.0 119.3 0.9 When the Cisco NAC appliance evaluates an incoming connection from a remote device against the defined network policies, what feature is being used? Refer to the exhibit. Which portion of the Snort IPS rule header identifies the destination port? Which attack involves threat actors positioning themselves between a source and destination with the intent of transparently monitoring, capturing, and controlling the communication? !-- Enable dns-guard to verify that DNS query and !-- response transaction IDs match and only one DNS !-- response is allowed through the firewall for !-- each query. For additional configuration options, consult the. What statement describes the risk of access to removable media? Release Notes for the Cisco ASA Series, 9.12(x) -Release Notes: Release Notes for the Cisco ASA Series, 9.12(x) ASA cannot send syslog to two UDP ports at same time. ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////. After the initial connection is established, it can dynamically change connection information. 34. Match the security concept to the description. Firewall syslog message106007will be generated when the firewall detects that a DNS response message has already been received for a DNS query message and the connection entry has been torn down by the DNS guard function. Some best practices that mitigate BYOD risks include the following:Use unique passwords for each device and account.Turn off Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity when not being used. 111. Authorization is concerned with allowing and disallowing authenticated users access to certain areas and programs on the network. 98. What statement describes the risk of using social networking? Examples of such resources include CPU, memory, and socket buffers. A user complains about being locked out of a device after too many unsuccessful AAA login attempts. All devices should be allowed to attach to the corporate network flawlessly. If the DNS server is only configured as an authoritative server and it receives a DNS query message asking about information which the server is authoritative, it will cause the server to inspect locally stored RR information and return the value of the record in the 'Answer Section' of a DNS response message. A network administrator enters the service password-encryption command into the configuration mode of a router. A tool that attempts to collect all possible information available for a domain. 121. Commonly, BYOD security practices are included in the security policy. This function is disabled by default on the ASA and PIX firewalls. Everything below the ".org" domain name space is in theorgdomain and everything below ".cisco.com" domain name space is in thecisco.comdomain. If the requested information is present in the DNS cache, then the recursive DNS resolver will respond with that RR information. Inspected traffic returning from the DMZ or public network to the private network is permitted. and may contain a maximum of 63 characters. Explanation: Traffic originating from the public network and traveling toward the DMZ is selectively permitted and inspected. 87. In addition, there is no Cisco customer support available. Subscriber Rule Set Available for a fee, this service provides the best protection against threats. If a private key is used to encrypt the data, a public key must be used to decrypt the data. The example that follows demonstrates how ACLs can be used in order to limit IP spoofing. Explanation: Cryptanalysis is the practice and study of determining the meaning of encrypted information (cracking the code), without access to the shared secret key. With HIPS, the success or failure of an attack cannot be readily determined. 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