History and memory of the European Resistance movements and deportation. From May 1933 the responsibility for the scheme was transferred to National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV). These efforts continued until La Cagoule could be infiltrated and dismantled in 1937. He threatened to detach the French 2nd Armored Division (2e DB) and order them to single-handedly attack Paris, bypassing the SHAEF chain of command, if he delayed approval unduly. [172], This period also saw a number of films that depicted the military resistance to Hitler. There is no need here for theoretical reflections. [50] The execution of Bonsergent, a man guilty only of being a witness to an incident that was in itself only very trivial, brought home to many of the French the precise nature of the "New Order in Europe". [75], In Britain, the letter V had been adopted as a symbol of the will to victory, and in the summer of 1941, the V cult crossed the English Channel and the letter V appeared widely in chalk on the pavement, walls, and German military vehicles all over France. [263] But no women were chosen to lead any of the eight major Resistance movements. On 20 October 1942, Mller again ordered commissars captured in battle to be shot on the spot. [43], Throughout the campaign Wehrmacht engaged in widespread theft and plunder of Polish citizens' property. A low-intensity conflict (LIC) is a military conflict, usually localised, between two or more state or non-state groups which is below the intensity of conventional war.It involves the state's use of military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with its policies or objectives.. The camp director was also a teacher. De Gaulle's influence grew, despite few in France knowing what he looked like or anything about him. [94] The Peugeot works were largely knocked out in a bombing organised by Re on 5 November 1943 and output never recovered. [82], By the beginning of 1944, the BCRA was providing the Allies with two intelligence assessments per day based on information provided by the Resistance. Examples in Greece include Alikianos, Chortiatis, Kaisariani, Kalavryta, Kali Sykia, Kallikratis, Kleisoura, Kondomari, Kommeno, Lyngiades, Malathyros, Mesovouno, Mousiotitsa, Paramythia and Skourvoula;[63] the razings of Kandanos, Anogeia and Vorizia;[64] the Viannos massacres;[64] and numerous incidents of smaller scale. [174] In the Battle of the Vercors Plateau, the SS landed a glider company and the maquis suffered very heavy losses. [140] For instance, in Saint-Amand-Montrond, the maquis seized the town and took 13 miliciens and their associated women prisoners, including the wife of Francis Bout de l'An, a senior leader of the Milice who intervened to take personal charge of the situation to get his wife back. Most clandestine newspapers were not consistent in their editorial stance and often consisted of only a single sheet, because the sale of all raw materialspaper, ink, stencilswas prohibited. [60] Commencing on 6 April 1941, Fhrer Directive 25 was enacted with a large scale bombing of Belgrade occurring in the early hours of the invasion. [91] Indeed, she herself was arrested in February 1942, tortured, and deported to Hamburg where she was beheaded by guillotine in February 1943. [106] At least 40,000 French died in such prisons. The FFI in Normandy and the le-de-France region surrounding Paris began to harass German forces intensively, cutting roads and railways, setting ambushes and fighting conventional battles alongside their allies. The accused faced four charges of having committed war crimes and crimes against humanity: All defendants were indicted on all counts and all pleaded "not guilty". Some members of Action Franaise engaged in the Resistance with similar nationalistic motives. I never killed a German or a Gestapo agent with my own hand". [49] Frenay remembered: We established contact with them through our departmental and regional chiefs. It was also preferred since it caused less collateral damage and fewer civilian casualties than Allied bombing. He insisted on taking full responsibility, saying he wanted to show the French what sort of people the Germans were, and he was shot on 23 December 1940. At your disposal are the full air, land and sea forces of each power, A World Divided features spies and signals intelligence as well, capable of stealing technology and other information on the enemy, and providing an upper hand in combat situations. [citation needed], Between 25 and 28 May 1940, the Wehrmacht committed several war crimes in and near the small Belgian village of Vinkt. [5], KLV was extended to Essen, Cologne and Dsseldorf and areas of Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony and Westphalia. The intelligence service of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans was known by the code letters FANA[301] and headed by Georges Beyer, the brother-in-law of Charles Tillon. [94], Despite the blow inflicted by Barbie by arresting Moulin, by 1 October 1943 the AS had grown to 241,350 members, though most were still unarmed. [295] It ran to five issues before the arrest of the editors in March 1940. Die Judenverfolgung gestaltete sich in Nordafrika nicht so mrderisch wie in Europa, doch starben einige der Zwangsarbeiter doch starben einige der Zwangsarbeiter Wehrmacht, Verbrechen, Widerstand: vier Beitrge zum nationalsozialistischen Weltanschauungskrieg, page 55 Clemens Vollnhals Hannah-Arendt-Institut fr Totalitarismusforschung e.V. Mark IV, July 1944, Revised construction to reduce rearward fragmentation and "back blast" of warhead explosion. Among prominent foreign figures who participated in the French Resistance was the political scientist and later Iranian Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. [15] The order was formulated in 1941 with the participation of the Army High Command (the OKH) and issued by the Wehrmacht High Command (the OKW). [20], The historian Jrgen Frster wrote that the majority of Wehrmacht officers sincerely believed that most Red Army commissars were Jews and that the best way to defeat the Soviet Union was to kill all of the commissars so as to deprive the Soviet soldiers of their Jewish leaders. The Allies helped build networks of propagandists, spies and saboteurs to harass and discomfit the occupiers. [91] If the would-be assassin was unable to take a life, Renouvin would assassinate the informer himself, then berate the would-be assassin for being a "sissy" who was not tough enough for the hard, dangerous work of the Resistance. [10] Blacker eventually designed a lightweight mortar that he named the 'Arbalest' and submitted it to the War Office,[11] but it was turned down in favour of a Spanish design. [4], The term Evakuierung ("evacuation") was avoided and the terms Unterbringungsaktion ("housing action") and Erweiterter ("Extended") KLV were used instead. Eisenhower relented, and Leclerc's forces headed toward Paris. The PIAT was based on the spigot mortar system, and projected (launched) a 2.5 pound (1.1kg) shaped charge bomb using a cartridge in the tail of the projectile. was held from The orders issued by Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel in September 1941 called for the German Army to shoot 100 Serbs for every German soldier killed by the Serb guerrillas and did not call for Jews to be singled out. [13] The Wehrmacht did not just obey Hitler's criminal orders for Barbarossa because of obedience, but rather because they shared Hitler's belief that the Soviet Union was run by Jews, and that it was necessary for Germany to completely destroy "Judeo-Bolshevism". Photographs serve as a valuable source of knowledge; taking them and making albums about the persecution of Jews was a popular custom among German soldiers. Others, like Antoine Diederich, rose to high rank in the Resistance. At the same time that Mohaupt was developing shaped charge ammunition, Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker of the Royal Artillery was investigating the possibility of developing a lightweight platoon mortar. Library and Archives Canada, Record Group 24, Battle Experience Questionnaires, Vol. [94], To maintain contact with Britain, Resistance leaders crossed the English Channel at night on a boat, made their way via Spain and Portugal, or took a "spy taxi", as the British Lysander aircraft were known in France, which landed on secret airfields at night. What were the turning points of World War II? The question of how many were active in the Resistance has been raised. After the German invasion of the USSR, many Russian white migrs, inspired by Russian patriotic sentiment, would support the Soviet war effort. After hard fighting that cost the 2nd Division 35 tanks, 6 self-propelled guns and 111 vehicles, Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, surrendered the city in a ceremony at the Hotel Meurice. It should never be possible to take him by surprise.A maquisard should be mobile. Within minutes of the first casualty, another seven of our men lay dying within the farm complex: all had been shot from long range.[156]. The war was in many respects a continuation, after an uneasy 20-year ", Douzou, Laurent. population with the appearance of being harmless members thereof. [159] If the phrase "l'heure des combats viendra" ("the hour of battle will come"), which was broadcast on 1 June 1944, that was the signal that the Allies would land within the next 15 days. The pamphlet ended with the call for "brother soldiers" of the Red Army to rise up and kill all of the "Jewish commissars". [109] The Milice, commanded by Joseph Darnand, was a mixture of fascists, gangsters, and adventurers with a "sprinkling of the respectable bourgeoisie and even the disaffected aristocracy" committed to fight to the death against the "Jews, Communists, Freemasons and Gaullists"; the oath of those who joined required to them to commit to work for the destruction in France of the "Jewish leprosy", the Gaullists and the Communists. This forced labour was used in extremely dangerous situations near targets of bombing raids, facing hunger and violence. "[24] Influenced by the guidelines, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated: The war against Russia is an important chapter in the German nation's struggle for existence. (The British manual did not mention killing, but the US manual included killing as a possible reprisal. An estimated 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 people died during World War II. [3], The NSV also organised the relocation of younger children aged 3 to 10 to host families and the transport arrangements for children of all ages to stay with relatives in safer areas. He asked, in his Appeal of 18 June 1940, that every patriot who could reach British territory should do so and join the Free French Army to fight in company with the Allies. A man within feet of me slumped to the ground with blood spurting two feet into the air from the side of his neck We had anticipated an infantry assault-possibly backed up with light armour, but snipers, a threat we had not met before, were difficult to counter. Mussolini was the first child of the local blacksmith. [106] The only way to avoid torture was to be "turned", with the Germans having a particular interest in turning radio operators who could compromise an entire Resistance network. Charles de Gaulle spoke of "French resistance" in his broadcast on 18 June 1940. Despite some differences in their positions on certain issues, these organizations were united in their opposition to parliamentarism,[215] a stance that had led them to participate in demonstrations, most notably the "political disturbance" riots of 6 February 1934. Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Some lucky ones had scraps of uniforms and British battledress, but predominantly their clothes consisted of drab colored shirts, blue overall trousers and German field boots, whose owners no doubt had ceased to require them for obvious reasons. [2] Following the judgement, Justice Charles Wennerstrum gave an interview to the Chicago Tribune in which he accused the prosecution of failing "to maintain objectivity aloof from vindictiveness, [and] aloof from personal ambitions for convictions" and dismissed the whole Nuremberg exercise as "victors justice". For example, the increasing militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. [73] The SOE provided weapons, bombs, false papers, money and radios to the resistance, and the SOE agents were trained in guerrilla warfare, espionage and sabotage. [145] On 10 January 1944, the Milice "avenged" their losses at the hands of the maquis by killing Victor Basch and his wife outside Lyon. [247] Under General Koenig, he and his heavily outnumbered troops committed daring raids, dealing decisive losses to the Germans at the Battle of Bir Hakeim. These groups also included Pierre de Bnouville, who, together with Henri Frenay, led the Combat group, and Jacques Renouvin, who founded the group of resisters known as Libert. [1], Jefferis took the prototype Baby Bombard apart on the floor of his office in MD1 and rebuilt it, and then combined it with a shaped charge mortar bomb to create what he called the 'Jefferis Shoulder Gun'. Colonel Andr Dewavrin (also known as Colonel Passy), who had previously worked for France's military intelligence service, the Deuxime Bureau, took on the responsibility for creating such a network. Felgenhauer, Uwe. [200] It was only when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 that French communists actively began to organize a resistance effort. The gun saw combat in World War II with the United States Army (primarily used by airborne units), [citation needed] with the In the 1950s, a less heroic interpretation of the Resistance to the occupation gradually began to emerge. Economical as it may be fired many times with new propellant cartridges. After the war, the influential French Communist Party (PCF) projected itself as "Le Parti des Fusills" (The Party of Those Shot), in recognition of the thousands of communists executed for their Resistance activities. Everyone, even the last doubter, knows today that the battle against these sub-humans, who've been whipped into a frenzy by the Jews, was not only necessary but came in the nick of time. [188] Although many, including d'Astier himself, did fit this description, most members of the Resistance came from traditional backgrounds[189] and were "individuals of exceptional strong-mindedness, ready to break with family and friends"[attribution needed][190] to serve a higher purpose. [174], Only with Jenseits des Krieges (released in the US as East of War) in 1996, a documentary directed by Ruth Beckermann dealing with the public's reaction to the exhibition "War of Extermination" in Vienna in 1995, did a German film admit to Wehrmacht war crimes being commonplace instead of an exception to the rule. [81] The executions in Nantes and Bordeaux started a debate about the morality of assassination that lasted until the end of the occupation; some French argued that since the Germans were willing to shoot so many innocent people in reprisal for killing only one German that it was not worth it, while others contended that to cease assassinations would prove that the Germans could brutally push the French around in their own country. I had nothing to do with this technical procedure. [107] For the most part, the AS refrained from armed operations as it was no match for the Wehrmacht. Allied strategy emphasized destroying German forces retreating towards the Rhine, but when the French Resistance under Henri Rol-Tanguy staged an uprising in the city, De Gaulle, upon receiving intelligence that the French Resistance had openly risen up against the German occupiers, and unwilling to allow his countrymen to be slaughtered against the entrenched and better-armed Germans, as had happened to the Polish Resistance in the Warsaw Uprising, petitioned Eisenhower for an immediate frontal assault. The judges in this case, heard before Military Tribunal V, were Charles F. Wennerstrum (presiding judge) from Iowa, George J. Burke from Michigan, and Edward F. Carter from Nebraska. Every military action must be guided in planning and execution by an iron resolution to exterminate the enemy remorselessly and totally. [140] A joint German-milice force marched on Saint-Amand-Montrond, causing the maquis to retreat and when the Axis forces arrived, eleven people were shot on the spot while a number of hostages were taken. [10][a], The PIAT was 39 inches (0.99m) long and weighed 32 pounds (15kg), with an effective direct fire range of approximately 115 yards (105m) and a maximum indirect fire range of 350 yards (320m). Many on the lists below were of Jewish and Polish origin, although Soviet POWs, Jehovahs Witnesses, Serbs, Catholics, Roma and dissidents were also murdered. That is why I approve and defend this measure". [320] Estimates of the casualties among the Resistance are made harder by the dispersion of movements at least until D-Day, but credible estimates start from 8,000 dead in action, 25,000 shot and several tens of thousands deported. Made to drink warm salted water. [169] The term 08/15 refers to a type of German machine gun used in World War I that was manufactured in such quantities that "08/15" (German: Nullachtfnfzehn) became German Army slang for anything was standard issue, which implied that Asch and the soldiers under his command were Everyman characters of the war on the Eastern Front. At the end of the summer of 1940, Daniel Mayer was asked by Leon Blum to reconstitute the SFIO (in ruins because of Paul Faure's defection to the Vichy rgime). [5] The tribunal observed that both the British Manual of Military Law and the U.S. Bernhard H.Bayerlein, Mikhal Narinski, Brigitte Studer, Serge Wolikow, dir. [123] If a soldier who committed a rape was subsequently convicted by a court-martial, he would usually be sentenced to four years in prison[132] The German penal code was also valid for soldiers in war. The defeat of France in 1940 and the appointment of the Vichy rgime's conservative leader, Philippe Ptain, undermined feminism,[253] and France began a restructuring of society based on the "femme au foyer" or "women at home" imperative. [150] This matter of legal definition has been misconstrued by German World War II veterans and others to mean that the IMT ruled that the OKW was not a "criminal organization" because the Wehrmacht committed no war crimes. That same month, General Aubert Frre, the leader of the ORA, was arrested and later executed. [5] The Wehrmacht was created by Adolf Hitler in 1935 with the passing of a law introducing conscription into the armed forces. What happened to the Jews were a secondary matter; it was beyond their immediate affairs, it belonged to that realm of the 'political' which they could no longer control or even bring themselves to follow with much interest". While the tribunal declared that the Gestapo, SD and SS (including the Waffen-SS) were inherently criminal organizations, the court did not reach the same conclusion with the Wehrmacht General Staff and High Command. The Free French forces also rallied the various French overseas colonies to fight back against the Vichy rgime. p. 71. However the SS reported the public was using terms such as "evacuation of endangered cities" and "disguised forced evacuation". "[157] Such claims were widely believed not only in Germany but abroad, with the British military historian Captain Basil Liddell Hart writing that "the German Army in the field on the whole observed the rules of war better than in 191418". [35] Moreover, the general who objected the loudest to war crimes in Poland, General Johannes Blaskowitz, was opposed to the Army committing war crimes with the SS, not the idea of atrocities against Poland. When a Panther tank came up to engage the maquis, one of the maquisards threw a "Gammon grenade", which knocked out the tank tracks. [2] However, neither of these was particularly effective as an anti-tank weapon. [153] Cold War priorities and taboos about revisiting the most unpleasant aspects of World War II meant that the Wehrmacht's role in war crimes was not seriously re-examined until the early 1980s. [94] The Michelin family were approached with the same offer and declined. [43] For security reasons, Combat was divided into a series of cells that were unaware of each other. They were particularly active in Brittany, but on every portion of the front we secured help from them in a multitude of ways. [40] The Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote that Blaskowitz was actually "legitimizing murder" by expressing approval of SS massacres while demanding that the Army be kept out of the massacres as damaging to discipline. From spring 1943, German and Austrian anti-fascists who had fought in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War fought in Lozre and the Cvennes alongside the French Resistance in the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans. Bnouville and Marie-Madeleine Fourcade became dputs in the French parliament after the war; Franois Mitterrand moved towards the left, joined the Resistance and eventually became the first socialist president of the Fifth Republic, Henri Frenay evolved towards European socialism,[220] and Daniel Cordier, whose family had supported Charles Maurras for three generations, abandoned his views in favor of the ideology of the republican Jean Moulin. [73] The seminar, which became known as the Mogilev Conference, ended with the 7th Company of Police Battalion 322 of the Order Police shooting 32 Jews at a village called Knjashizy before the assembled officers as an example of how to "screen" the population for partisans. Our Fhrer has saved Europe from certain chaos. [257][258] Not all of the women involved in the Resistance limited themselves to subordinate roles. Many on the lists below were of Jewish and Polish origin, although Soviet POWs, Jehovahs Witnesses, Serbs, Catholics, Roma and dissidents were also murdered. By this point the Germans had taken such heavy losses on the Eastern Front that they needed the manpower of the Ostlegionen to compensate. In October 1943, following a meeting between General Giraud and General de Gaulle in Algiers, orders went out for the AS and ORA to cooperate in operations against the Germans. While the Wehrmacht's prisoner-of-war camps for inmates from the west generally satisfied the humanitarian requirement prescribed by international law, prisoners from Poland (which never capitulated) and the USSR were incarcerated under significantly worse conditions. [73] As the war diary of the Battalion 322 read: The action, first scheduled as a training exercise was carried out under real-life conditions (ernstfallmssig) in the village itself. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. [citation needed] Another among the most influential factions of the right was Croix-de-Feu (Cross of Fire),[213] which gradually moderated its positions during the early years of the war and grew increasingly popular among the aging veterans of the First World War.[214]. [108] Barbie tortured Moulin, who never talked. ", Poznanski, Rene. [27] Three PIATs were issued to every company at the headquarters level for issuing at the CO discretion allowing one weapon for each platoon. [72] Under the guise of "anti-bandit" (Bandenbekmpfung) operations, the Wehrmacht in the Soviet Union massacred Jews and other civilians. Christian Pineau, one of the founders of the Libration Nord movement, also had BCRA roots. [144] The 80 year-old Basch was a French Jew, a former president of the League for the Rights of Men and had been a prominent dreyfusard during the Dreyfus affair, marking him out as an enemy of the "New Order in Europe" by his very existence, though the elderly pacifist Basch was not actually involved in the resistance. [83], On 21 August 1941, a French Communist, Pierre Georges, assassinated the German naval officer Anton Moser in the Paris Metro, the first time the resistance had killed a German. [322] For perspective, the best estimate is that 86,000 were deported from France without racial motive, overwhelmingly comprising resistance fighters and more than the number of Gypsies and Jews deported from France. The Wehrmacht had full knowledge of those experiments, and performed some of its own. [180] In the middle of 1944, Chaban-Delmas had reported to de Gaulle that the FFI numbered 15,000 in Paris, but the time of the liberation of Paris on 25 August 1944, between 50,000 and 60,000 people were wearing FFI armbands. Suzanne Hiltermann-Souloumiac played an important role in the Dutch-Paris movement, specialised in rescuing Allied pilots. I must tell you I had been pregnant for three months". Now, however, all were much the same. [178] It was scheduled to be shown in Nuremberg at the Documentation Center of the Nazi Party Rallying Grounds from 1 September 2007 to early 2008. By February 1944, supply drops were up by 173%. [71] A number of Catholic and Calvinist schools and organizations such as the Jesuit Pierre Chaillet's l'Amiti Chrtienne took in Jewish children and passed them off as Christian. [13] Blacker then developed a shaped charge bomb with a propellant charge in its tail, which fitted into a shoulder-fired launcher that consisted of a metal casing containing a large spring and a spigot; the bomb was placed into a trough at the front of the casing, and when the trigger was pulled the spigot rammed into the tail of the bomb and fired it out of the casing and up to approximately 140 metres (150yd) away. [24], The following ammunition types were available in 1943.[3]. [7], 19478 war crimes trial in Nuremberg, Germany, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. [164] After the breakout from Normandy, Eisenhower had planned to by-pass Paris while Hitler had ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz to destroy Paris rather than allow the city be liberated, stating "Paris must be destroyed from top to bottom, before the Wehrmacht leaves, do not leave a church or cultural monument standing". [141] The Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) had rejected this plan under the grounds that the disparity between the firepower and training of the Wehrmacht vs. the maquisards meant that the Resistance would be unable to hold their own in sustained combat. [8] Although the amalgamation of the FFI was, in some cases, fraught with political difficulties, it was ultimately successful, and it allowed France to rebuild the fourth-largest army in the European theatre (1.2million men) by VE Day in May 1945. Several color-coded plans were co-ordinated for sabotage, most importantly Plan Vert (Green) for railways, Plan Bleu (Blue) for power installations and Plan Violet (Purple) for telecommunications. [354] A cautious reappearance of the image of Vichy emerged in Le Passage du Rhin (The Crossing of the Rhine)(1960), in which a crowd successively acclaims both Ptain and de Gaulle. Resistance leader Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie observed, in retrospect, that the Resistance had been composed of social outcasts or those on the fringes of society, saying "one could be a resister only if one was maladjusted". [314] British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later wrote in his memoirs praising the role the Resistance played in the liberation of Brittany, "The French Resistance Movement, which here numbered 30,000 men, played a notable part, and the peninsula was quickly overrun."[315]. [35], The Wehrmacht responded brutally to acts by alleged insurgents during the invasion of Poland in 1939 and was responsible for indiscriminate shootings of prisoners of war and civilians. "Central European Jewish refugees, mostly Austrians, were shot by troops of predominantly Austrian origin in retaliation for casualties inflicted by Serbian partisans on the German Army". Breakfast was after a flag-raising ceremony at 07:30. [26] General Mller declared that, in the war against the Soviet Union, any Soviet civilian who was felt to be hindering the German war effort was to be regarded as a "guerrilla" and shot on the spot. Consequently, no criminal responsibility attaches to the defendant List because of the execution of captured partisans[4]. [94] The RAF bombed the Michelin factory at Clermont-FerrandFrance's largest tyre factory and a major source of tyres for the Wehrmachtinto the ground. [118] Furthermore, as Laval warned, the scale of the problem was beyond Vichy's means to solve. The host family was provided with an additional ration card and an allowance of 2 Reichsmarks per day. [116], Fritz Sauckel, the General Plenipotentiary for Labour Deployment and the man in charge of bringing slaves to German factories, demanded the flight of young men to the countryside be stopped and called the maquis "terrorists", "bandits" and "criminals". [7] Padding for the user's shoulder was fitted to the other end of the launcher, and rudimentary aperture sights were fitted on top for aiming; the bombs launched by the PIAT possessed hollow tubular tails, into which a small propellant cartridge was inserted, and shaped charge warheads. [26] A typical policy statement read, "After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, shall be shot. Their symbol was the white gamma, the zodiacal sign of the Ram, symbolising renewal and power. Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by Germany. By 1942, however, about 300,000 copies of underground publications reached around two million readers. [32], Jost Hermand, later a professor of modern German literature and German cultural history, wrote of torturous paramilitary exercises, constant drill, a permanent intrusive indoctrination and brutalization of weaklings. [152] As a result of this view of Operation Barbarossa, for many Germans, violence inflicted by the Wehrmacht on Soviet civilians and POWs was seen as something that the Soviets had brought down on themselves, hence the absence of any guilt on the part of many Germans. [364] Later, Jacques Audiard's Un hros trs discret (1996) told the story of a young man's traveling to Paris and manufacturing a Resistance past for himself, suggesting that many heroes of the Resistance were impostors. The Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank (PIAT) Mk I was a British man-portable anti-tank weapon developed during the Second World War.The PIAT was designed in 1942 in response to the British Army's need for a more effective infantry anti-tank weapon and entered service in 1943.. [citation needed] At the time, most other armies embedded a light machine gun with each section or squad, usually half the size of the Italian section, which by comparison seems an unwieldy organisation. [15], It entered service in mid-1943, and was first used in action during the Tunisia Campaign. At the close of the First World War in 1918, the British Army was equipped with two main automatic weapons; the Vickers medium machine gun airdropped to partisans and also issued to the Italian Co-Belligerent Army in the latter part of WWII. [359][360] Time magazine's positive review of the film wrote that director Marcel Ophls "tries to puncture the bourgeois mythor protectively skew memorythat allows France generally to act as if hardly any Frenchmen collaborated with the Germans. [196][199] On Armistice Day, November 11, 1940, communists were among the university students demonstrating against German repression by marching along the Champs-lyses. [152] Thus the subject of Red Army atrocities against German civilians in 194445 received vastly more popular and historical interest in the 1950s than did the subject of Wehrmacht atrocities against Soviet civilians in 194144. The 2nd Armored all but destroyed the 9th Panzer Division and mauled several other German units as well. Two days to die. "[128] The innocence of the maquisards was reflected in the choice of names they took, which were usually whimsical and boyish names, unlike those used by the rsistants in the older groups, which were always serious. [123] The only other way of breaking up the maquis bands was to send in a spy, which was highly dangerous work as the maquisards would execute infiltrators. [125] The aspect of life in the maquis best remembered by veterans was their youthful idealism, with most of the maquisards remembering how innocent they were, seeing their escape into the countryside as a grand romantic adventure, by which, as Ousby observed, "they were nervously confronting new dangers they barely understood; they were proudly learning new techniques of survival and battle. Blacker called the weapon the 'Baby Bombard', and presented it to the War Office in 1941. [61] Following the end of the war, Generaloberst Alexander Lhr was found guilty of war crimes including his part in the bombing of Belgrade. [303] Even children partook in radio work (see Eddy Palacci). "[65] People could not legally buy items without a ration book with the population being divided into categories A, B, C, E, J, T and V; among the products rationed included meat, milk, butter, cheese, bread, sugar, eggs, oil, coffee, fish, wine, soap, tobacco, salt, potatoes and clothing. [156] In the middle of June, the Wehrmacht had taken the village of Saint-Nizier-du-Moucherotte from the Maquis du Vercors, which severed the link between the Vercors plateau and Grenoble. [12], The order was in line with the interests of the Wehrmacht command, which was eager to secure logistical facilities and routes behind the front line for the divisions on the Eastern Front. According to the publication Jewish Communities of the World edited by Anthony Lerman, in 1942 during the German occupation, the Benghazi quarter that housed the Jewish population was plundered and 2000 Jews were deported across the desert, out of which circa a fifth of them had perished. [181] The liberation of France began with D-Day on 6 June 1944, but different areas of France were liberated at different times. According to Abwehr officer Hermann Tickler, the Germans needed 32 000 indicateurs (informers) to crush all resistance in France, but he reported in the fall of 1940 that the Abwehr had already exceeded that target. [40], Resistance when it first began in the summer of 1940 was based upon what the writer Jean Cassou called refus absurde ("absurd refusal") of refusing to accept that the Reich would win and even if it did, it was better to resist. Altogether, it is estimated that 16,376 Poles fell victim to these atrocities. [94] To avoid a repeat, the SOE agent Harry Re contacted industrialist Rudolphe Peugeot to see if he was willing to sabotage his own factory. [185] At the time, many feared that France was on the verge of civil war as it was felt that the FTP might attempt to seize power, but owing to the shortage of arms and loyalty to Moscow which recognized General de Gaulle as France's leader, the Communists chose to pursue power via ballots rather than bullets. [153] As it was starting to become more and more clear that the Allies were going to win the war, the Milice become more desperate and vicious as the knowledge that when the Allies won, the miliciens would be tried for treason if they were not killed first. The Communist FTP often complained that they were being starved of arms by the BCRA with Charles Tillon noting that the BCRA had organized hundreds of supply drops, of which only six were for the FTP. They worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. [27] Sunday worship was permitted, but the camps were officially non-religious and were instructed in February 1941 to watch out for "religious counter-propaganda". [370] Some were later ostracized following accusations that they had collaborated. This was evidenced by the formation of movements in the Vichy zone centred on such figures as Henri Frenay (Combat), Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie (Libration-Sud) and Franois de Menthon, (Libert), each of whom was, independently, an agent of the Free French. [44] Another early resistance group founded in the summer of 1940 was the ill-fated Interalli group led by a Polish migr Roman Czerniawski that passed on intelligence from contacts in the Deuxime Bureau to Britain via couriers from Marseilles. [32] Their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Resistance suspects. [62] The writers of the corbeaux were inspired by motivations such as envy, spite, greed, anti-Semitism, and sheer opportunism, as many ordinary French people wanted to ingratiate themselves with what they believed to be the winning side. The Red Army advanced from the east and effectively claimed all the territory under its control for the Soviet sphere. When Laval was presented with Sauckel's latest demand for French labor for German industry, he remarked: "Have you been sent by de Gaulle?". After serving as the prime minister and strong man of the authoritarian Shah rgime in Iran, he was forced back into Paris in the aftermath of the Islamic Revolution. [18], As such, all Soviet POWs considered to be commissars together with all Jewish POWs were to be handed over to the Einsatzgruppen to be shot. The British Special Operations Executive also parachuted tons of explosives to its agents in France for essential sabotage missions. [137] On 5 June 1944, orders were given to activate Plan Violet. His concern was then to rebuild France not only on the material and international level, but also morally, pushing him to put forward the actions of the Resistance to re-establish national unity and pride, which the war had damaged. [63], In the spring of 1942, a committee consisting of SS Hauptsturmfhrer Theodor Dannecker, the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, and general secretary of the police Ren Bousquet began planning a grande rafle (great round-up) of Jews to deport to the death camps. [91] Renouvin taught his men military tactics at a secret boot camp in the countryside in the south of France and led the Groupes Francs in a series of attacks on collaborators in Lyon and Marseilles. Partisans in Axis-occupied Soviet territory in the early 1940s operated with a stay-behind element.. During the Cold War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) coordinated and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the British The grave was near some woods. [169] Bout de l'An decided to seek revenge for his wife's captivity by sending a force of miliciens under Lcussan to round up the surviving Jews of Bourges and buried 36 Jews alive out in the woods, as Bout de l'An believed that the Resistance was all the work of the Jews.[152]. He led his troops by example and died in combat during the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. [52], The killing of POWs by Wehrmacht soldiers started during the September 1939 Poland campaign. They are our brothers. [20] Labour shortages also plagued the French economy because hundreds of thousands of French workers were requisitioned and transferred to Germany for compulsory labour under the Service du Travail Obligatoire (STO). [70], On 31 December 1940, de Gaulle, speaking on the BBC's Radio Londres, asked that the French stay indoors on New Year's Day between 3 and 4:00 pm as a show of passive resistance. Dostler was sentenced to death by an American military tribunal and executed by firing squad in December 1945. [61], As the franc was devalued by 20% to the Reichsmark, which together with German policies of food requisition both to support their own army and the German home front, "France was slowly being bled dry by the outflow not just of meat and drink, fuel and leather, but of wax, frying pans, playing cards, axe handles, perfume and a host of other goods as well. I was not surprised that so many had enough. Hostages were taken and used as human shields. I was perhaps astonished that the number of defectors were so low. These twelve trials were all held before US military courts, not before the International Military Tribunal, but took place in the same rooms at the Palace of Justice. [169] Bartov commented that given the intense indoctrination in the Wehrmacht about how the war against the Soviet Union was a war to destroy "Judeo-Bolshevism" that Asch would most definitely have known what they were fighting for. In this context, it is customary to distinguish the various organisations of the French Resistance as movements or networks. In August 1941, the staff doctor assigned to the Sixth Army, This page was last edited on 8 December 2022, at 12:21. In this manner, in Is Paris Burning? The 75mm Pack Howitzer M1 (redesignated the M116 in 1962) was a pack howitzer artillery piece used by the United States. The PIAT was first used during the Tunisia Campaign in 1943, and remained in use with British and other Commonwealth forces until the early 1950s. In a meeting of senior generals called at Ora on 13 November 1941, the Army's First quarter-master General Eduard Wagner stated "Non-working prisoners of war in the camps are to starve". Only those commissars who were identified as deserters were sent to Mauthausen. "Remembering the French resistance: ethics and poetics of the epic. Historians still debate how effective the French Resistance was militarily,[320] but the neutralization of the Maquis du Vercors alone involved the commitment of over 10,000 German troops within the theater, with several more thousand held in reserve, as the Allied invasion was advancing from Normandy and French Operation Jedburgh commandos were being dropped nearby to the south to prepare for the Allied landing in Provence. However, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW High Command of the Armed Forces) was judged not to be a criminal organization under the legal grounds that because of very poor co-ordination between the German Army, Navy and Air Force high commands, which operated as more or less separate entities during the war, the OKW did not constitute an "organization" as defined by Article 9 of the constitution of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) which conducted the Nuremberg trials. The idea never came to fruition and KLV boys aged 15 to 17 were among the 300,000 members of the HJ reserved as the third wave of the Volkssturm. Louis Lallier, a farmer, was shot for sabotage on 11 September in pinal, and Marcel Rossier, a mechanic, was shot in Rennes on 12 September. [268][269] A Resistance movement, on the other hand, was focused on educating and organising the population,[269] i.e., "to raise awareness and organise the people as broadly as possible. [17] Children covered by the Nuremberg Laws were excluded. [164] In June 1944, the Resistance destroyed French railroads at 486 different points and by 7 June 1944, the day after D-Day, the Wehrmacht complained that due to sabotage that the main railroad lines between Avranches and St. L, between Cherbourg and St. L and between Caen and St. L were now out of action. [54] All through the 1930s, the number of illegal Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe was vastly exaggerated, and popular opinion believed that the majority of Jews living in France were illegal immigrants who were causing all sorts of social problems. No mention is ever made of the genocidal aspects of Germany's war in the East with instead the German soldiers being shown as the victims of a war that they can not fathom the reasons for. [105], Torture of captured rsistants was routine. "[55], In September 1944, during the retreat from France, the garrison of Brest executed civilians and looted and destroyed civilian property during the Battle for Brest. "[361], Franck Cassenti, with L'Affiche Rouge (1976); Gilson, with La Brigade (1975); and Mosco with the documentary Des terroristes la retraite addressed foreign resisters of the EGO, who were then relatively unknown. [94] The RAF missed the factory and instead killed around 1,000 French civilians. The prosecution case had advanced these principles as establishing the inherent criminality of hostage killing; and in rejecting these arguments the tribunal must be considered to have been asserting that the Nuremberg principles could and should be overruled in the circumstances of this case. Omissions? [103] The Jews in France, whether they were Isralites or immigrant Juifs, had begun the occupation discouraged and isolated, cut off and forced to become "absent from the places they lived in. [159] If a line from a poem by Verlaine "Les sanglots longs des violons de l'automne" ("The long sobs of the violins of autumn") was read on the BBC, that was the signal that the invasion was imminent and if the following verse "blessent mon cur d'une langueur monotone" (wound my heart with a monotonous languor"), which was broadcast on 5 June 1944, then the invasion would occur the next day. About 9,000[23] KLV camps were established throughout safer areas of the Reich, including Austria, Sudetenland, Reichsgau Wartheland and Bohemia-Moravia. [87] Reflecting the close co-operation between the Wehrmacht and the SS was an Einsatzgruppen report, which read: In Borispol, following a demand by the Commandant of the local P/W camp, a platoon of Sonderkommando 4 shot 752 Jewish prisoners of war on 14 October and 356 on 16 October 1941 including several commissars and 78 wounded Jews handed over by the camp medical officer. The wailing was indescribable. A member of the group, Frenchwoman Mathilde Carr codenamed La Chatte (the cat), was later arrested by the Germans and betrayed the group. [182] Strasbourg was not liberated until November 1944, and some coastal towns on the English Channel and the Atlantic like Dunkirk were still in German hands when the war ended on 8 May 1945. [180] Many rsistants were disgusted by the mass influx of new members in the dying days of the struggle, contemptuously calling them the FFS (Forces Franaises de Septembre-French Forces of September) or the Septemberists for short, as all these people had conveniently only discovered their French patriotism in September 1944. [22] His command was intended solely to prevent individual excesses which could damage discipline within army ranks, without changing the extermination intentions of the order. Their overall attitude is antisemitic.[180]. [42][43][44][45], Evacuations of children in Germany during World War II, devastating air raids on Hamburg in October 1943, Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II, Evacuations of civilians in Japan during World War II, "Zweispltige Erinnerungen an Kinderlandverschickung", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evacuations_of_children_in_Germany_during_World_War_II&oldid=1118581838, World War II strategic bombing of Germany, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 27 October 2022, at 20:03. It seemed to me that these groups, which were now in hiding all over the French mountain country, might well be transformed into an awesome combat weapon. [49] Cheminots also became the main agents for delivering underground newspapers across France. [187] Most Gaullists could not join him in Britain and remained in the territories ruled by Vichy. Many people, perhaps even most people, were indifferent. The Axis powers were led by Adolf Hitler (Germany), Benito Mussolini (Italy), and Hideki Tojo (Japan). [28] The Nazis at the beginning of the war banned sexual relations between Germans and foreign slave workers. Traces of this attitude can still be seen in some German works today, which minimize the number of soldiers who took part in Nazi crimes. Corrections? However, the weapon did have drawbacks. [166] Such operations seriously delayed the Germans, with the elite 2nd Waffen SS Division Das Reich taking 18 days to travel from Toulouse to Caen, a journey that was expected to take only 3 days. [174] The maquis lost about 650, killed during the fighting on the Vercors plateau and afterwards, the Germans shot about 200 maquisards, mostly wounded who had been unable to escape together with the medical team that had stayed behind to take care of them. The M1 carbine (formally the United States Carbine, Caliber .30, M1) is a lightweight semi-automatic carbine that was a standard firearm for the U.S. military during World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War.The M1 carbine was produced in several variants and was widely used by paramilitary and police forces around the world, and also became a popular To construct a "causal nexus" over all this amounts in fact to steering away from the decisive responsibility of the military leadership and the bureaucratic elites.[159]. [98] As a form of quiet protest, many Jewish veterans started to wear their medals alongside the yellow star, which led the Germans to ban the practice as "inappropriate", as it increased sympathy for men who fought and suffered for France. [60] Punctuality was key to meetings in public as the Germans would arrest anyone who was seen hanging around in public as if waiting for someone. March 25, 1941: The Italian destroyers Francesco Crispi and Quintino Sella departed Leros island in the Aegean at night, each carrying 3 small (2-ton) Motoscafo da Turismo motor assault boats of the Decima MAS. [265] English-language use of the phrase "the Resistance" in reference to French anti-Axis activity dates back to at least 1944. [180], Violation of the laws of war by German forces in World War II, Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia, Kay, Alex J., and David Stahel. "Were we terrorists? The size varied from as few as 18 children to as many as 1,200 children. World War II, also called Second World War, conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 193945. In the tribunal's opinion, taking hostages against armed civilian resistance (and killing them should guerrilla attacks continue) could be legitimate, subject to several conditions. [59] As the Communists were used to operating in secret, were tightly disciplined, and had a number of veterans of the Spanish Civil War, they played a disproportionate role in the Resistance. They were led by militant German communist Otto Khne, a former member of the Reichstag in the Weimar Republic who had over 2,000 Germans in the FTP under his command by July 1944. ", sfn error: no target: CITEREFU.S._War_Department_1945,1945 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFDedijer1956 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPitsch2009 (, Hidden responsibilities. Agreed on this common imperative, the sides in the conflict blur and become almost indistinguishable from each other. The Resistance's men and women came from all economic levels and political leanings of French society, including migrs, academics, students, aristocrats, conservative Roman Catholics (including priests and nuns), Protestants, Jews, Muslims, liberals, anarchists and communists. [84] On 20 October 1941, Oberstleutnant Karl Friedrich Hotz, the Feldkommandant of Nantes, was assassinated on the streets of Nantes; the military lawyer Dr. Hans Gottfried Reimers[de] was assassinated in Bordeaux on 21 October. Indiscriminate bombing of civilian targets lead to the deaths of between 1,500 and 17,000 civilians. They were convicted of all charges, sentenced to death and executed by hanging, although Jodl was acquitted post-mortem seven years later. [131] Albert Spencer, a Canadian airman shot down over France while on a mission to drop leaflets over France who joined the maquis, discovered the distinctive slang of the maquisards, learning that the leaflets he had been dropping over France were torche-culs (ass-wipes) in maquis slang. [113] Sauckel had joined the NSDAP in 1923, making him an Alter Kmpfer (Old Fighter), and like many other Alte Kmpfer (who tended to be the most extreme Nazis), Sauckel was a hard man. Reflecting their weakening power, the authorities grew more harsh in their punishments. Adjunct membership is for researchers employed by other institutions who collaborate with IDM Members to the extent that some of their own staff and/or postgraduate students may work within the IDM; for 3-year terms, which are renewable. and a considerable thickness of reinforced concrete". [106] A common threat to a captured rsistant was to have a loved one arrested or a female relative or lover sent to the Wehrmacht field brothels. Six members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces received Victoria Crosses for their use of the PIAT in combat. [79], On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa and invaded the Soviet Union. Some in the PCF wanted to launch a revolution as the Germans withdrew from the country,[208] but the leadership, acting on Stalin's instructions, opposed this and adopted a policy of cooperating with the Allied powers and advocating a new Popular Front government. [267] The Russian Boris Vild co-founded one of the first anti-occupation groups, and in December 1940 started co-publishing the underground newspaper Rsistance. By employing different projectiles and successively improved chemical propellants, the dual goal of most arms designers has been the creation of man-portable weapons of greater firepower and reduced weight. [342][343][344] The number of communists killed was in reality considerably less than the Party's figure of 75,000. This meant that Germany was legally obliged to treat all POWs according to it, while in turn, Germans captured by the Red Army could not expect to be treated in such a manner. 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